English 381 – British Literature to 1800

Jonathan Swift uses the discourse between Gulliver and the rulers of foreign lands to comment upon the nature of English government. The first of these scenes appears in Book One, Chapter Four. Gulliver, speaking to a bureaucratic official of the Lilliputian monarchy, discovers certain similarities in the political climes of England and Lilliput. Not only is there a struggle for the favor of the monarch, but a neighboring nation is rumored to be gearing up for a farcical war.

Reldresal, the Principal Secretary of Lilliput, describes the political climate of his country to Gulliver. Like the warring Tories and Whigs in Parliament, Lilliput possesses two powerful parties fighting for control of the government. Swift, who is a staunch supporter of the Tories, seeks to promote the plight of his party. Thus, despite the fact that “It is alleged indeed, that the high heels(Tories) are most agreeable to our ancient constitution,” the low heels, or Whigs, possess greater power. The author feels that his friends have been unfairly expelled from the government, a slight against England’s true children. However, there is hope that the crown prince is more open-minded than the current sovereign, demonstrated by the two different heels he wears.

A second reflection of real-world politics appears in the conflict between Lilliput and Blefuscu. The relationship is a complicated one, for the two nations have been split by a ridiculous cultural difference: egg-breaking methods. Swift’s choice is meant to emphasize the foolishness of the battle between Protestants and Catholics in Europe. Despite the common descent of both nations(and religious practices), a minor social practice has turned the people against one another. And in the European style, the Lilliputians and Blefuscuians see armed conflict as the only possible method to resolve their differences. The only result has been great bloodshed, a legacy England and France would be proud of. Later conversations, such as those between the king of Brobdingnag and Gulliver and the narrator’s discourse with the “noble” Houyhnhmn, further explore the limitations of the English government.

     Homer, Virgil, Chaucer, Shakespeare…these are some of the great poets who have invoked the power of Muse. It is this classical tradition that Pope seeks to summon when he says on line 3, “This verse to Caryll, Muse! Is due.” In the past, Muse invocation have signaled the poet’s epic designs for his work; Pope satirizes that practice. With a title like The Rape of the Lock, Pope would appear to be writing a tragedy. But Pope’s call, and the name of his play, merely provide greater amusement for an already ridiculous comedy. Women are labeled “nymphs,” men “heroes”; when a fight between the genders breaks out, it is fought not with swords and spears, but rather frowns and glares. When Pope transforms his nymphs into the Amazons of legend, the farcical nature of the battle is further realized.

     Belinda herself is the source of much humor. The Sylphs who guard her are assigned to important positions, such as the protection of her petticoat and jewelry, and even her chastity. But the most valuable possessions, the Sylphs say, are their mistress’s two curls. Above all it is their duty to protect the sanctity of Belinda’s hair, lest lecherous lusters seize upon them. So of course immediately after this bit of exposition Pope introduces the dashing young Baron, a hero who desires possession of a precious lock. He bides his time until the magical influence of coffee, striking like one of Zeus’s favorite phallic symbols, inspires action. Seizing a pair of clippers, the Baron castrates Belinda’s head, leading to a scene reminiscent of Virgil’s Aeneid. The reader is brought into the Cave of Spleen, home to Ill-Nature, Affectation and various other maladies of the heart. A vicious Gnome takes the place of Virgil’s Envy, poisoning Belinda’s mind and inciting a war akin to that between the forces of Latinum and Aeneas. However, the pièce de résistance is the ascension of that precious lock into the Heavens, immortalized as a constellation like the diadem of Ariadne. Pope uses mythology to subvert classicism and the English society of his time.

     Milton’s God is treated with a mixture of reverence and fear by those around him, and for good reason. Angels who are ready to burst into song at any moment in celebration of their sovereign are also dreadfully afraid of his anger. They see how he is willing to forgive only those who were deceived by another, as Man is tricked by Satan: the Dark Prince and his followers are forever forsaken in God’s mind. Much like man, Milton’s God has a vast capacity for mercy and wrath. And, also like man, God is vain: “To prayer, repentance, and obedience due/Though but endeavored with sincere intent/Mine ear shall not be slow, mine eye not shut”(l.191-3). Despite man’s fall, his creator is still willing to guide him, but only at the cost of total obedience. This situation is the same as the one Satan rebelled against; and his refusal to pay constant lip service to God resulted in eternal damnation. The same fate is prescribed for any human who fails to demonstrate dedication: “They who neglect and scorn shall never taste/But hard be hardened, blind be blinded more/That they may stumble on, and deeper fall”(l.199-201). Not only does he not possess mercy for these “sinners,” but the level of his hatred is rather over-the-top. God declares that the “blind [will] be blinded more,” an impossibility, but the only way in which he can express the depth of his anger.

     The Son of God’s sacrifice, both in its purpose and its execution, reflects the mindset of Heaven and its sovereign. Like Hammurabi before him, God believes in retribution, or more specifically “an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth.” When dictating the terms for Man’s salvation, the Creator expresses the need for “The rigid satisfaction, death for death”(l.212). In order to atone for the sins of Adam and Eve, which are passed along to every other human being, a mortal man must sacrifice his life. Strangely, he demands that a heavenly spirit take on a mortal coil to complete the task, as though he does not trust naturally born humans. The angels, in fear of such a proposition, remain silent until the Son of God offers his life. In exchange for this sacrifice, God says, his son will be allowed to rule in heaven upon cessation of mortal life. Those who please the Creator are rewarded, and those who anger him are condemned for eternity.

     Like Chaucer before him, Edmund Spencer has interwoven European Christianity and Greek Paganism. In “The Knight’s Tale,” readers are taken to Athens, home of Duke Theseus. But the mythological places and characters that Chaucer invokes are just doppelgangers, devoid of any resemblance to their classical selves. Theseus and his warriors are chivalrous knights, not the spear and shield fighters they are in myth; courtly love, unknown to the Greeks, is a central theme of Chaucer’s story. Despite the differences in personality, the names of Thebes and Mars, Venus and Creon, or any other legend invoked in The Knight’s Tale, still possesses value. When a reader sees the name Theseus, even in an odd context, it calls to his mind the exploits of that character. In the Duke of Athens’s case, the battle with the Minotaur is summoned alongside the more comical visit to the Underworld(Theseus becomes glued to one of Hades’s chairs). These stories evoke feelings of both humor and sadness, as does “The Knight’s Tale.” Merely by naming one of his characters after a mythological hero, Chaucer entertains while adding depth to his tale.

     In Book 3, Canto 6 of The Faerie Queen, the reader is introduced to the twins Belphoebe and Amoretta. Yet, odd circumstances surround the conception and birth of these two girls. Chrysogone, the mother, is herself the daughter of Amphisa and Zeus; in Greek, Amphisa means “of double nature”(868). The conception of Belphoebe and Amoretta is of a double nature, combining the immaculate nature of Christ’s creation with the classical theory of spontaneous generation. Spencer borrows the idea that sunlight and moist earth possesses the ability to generate life: while lying in the sun, Chrysogone is impregnated. Comparing the conception of these twins to the birth of Christ gives the author immense power, as well as great responsibility. His twins become linked with Jesus in the minds of readers, transferring his attributes to them: indeed, Spencer describes Belphoebe as having “all the gifts of grace and chastitee”(868), while Amoretta is the “Paragone” of “grace and beautie”(879). Evidently, Spencer is not satisfied with just biblical references, for he also incorporates classical creationist theories and myth into his story. Each serves the dual purpose of entertaining the reader and further wrinkling the story’s tapestry to allow for many different interpretations. The number of possible explanations is staggering.

     If a monarchy is only as strong as its monarch, then Lear’s division of Britain is a blessing for its people; at least good men like Edgar and the Duke of Albany arise from the ashes of Lear’s kingdom. It is tempting for readers to blame Lear’s madness on the behavior of his daughters Regan and Goneril. But there are indications that the old king desired, and even induced, this lamentable madness. Lear acknowledges his instability twice, once after Goneril divides his retinue, and again when Regan imitates her sister’s actions. The first time, immediately following Goneril’s betrayal, the old king demonstrates awareness of his mind’s weakness by begging “O, let me not be mad, not mad, sweet heaven!”(1.5. 41). Obviously he is still coherent at this point, for one is not truly mad until all suspicion of madness is gone. Once the mind can no longer discern reality from unreality, it is lost.

     The disappointment(and the madness) does not settle in until Lear takes up residence with Edgar-Tom. Playing the role of a lunatic, Edgar sits naked in a hovel, murmuring about devils and fiends. Lear has just been thrown out of the Earl of Gloucester’s house by Regan and her husband when a storm rolls in. A Big Storm. But instead of seeking shelter, the old king chooses to stand outside and complain to Mother Nature. The Earl of Kent, fearing for his lord’s safety, urges him to take cover in a nearby hovel; a hovel which conveniently houses a madman. While inside, Lear takes to Edgar’s Tom, so much so that when the Earl of Gloucester offers to shelter him, the old king refuses. In Tom, Lear has found a man who is insulated from the pains of reality, a “philosopher” in an age of brutality(3.4. 170). Readers should not think that madness has sneaked up on Lear, for though the pain in his chest was great, it was bearable. Instead, the old king has decided to separate himself from the reality that his actions have created. This will turn out to be a grave error, one that will cost him the life of his only true daughter.

The first half of Shakespeare’s sonnets are written to a young man whom the poet has taken a special interest in. At first glance, it seems to be no more than an idle fascination, yet there emerges a distinctly obsessive quality. In the opening sonnet Shakespeare focuses on the youth’s need to produce offspring, and then carries that theme through several more poems. There is no mention of a female love to be sought, only the physical act which is necessary to create progeny. Even the youth is given no say in the matter, and rather than a request, the poet’s speech has the feel of a command. The preservation of the man’s beauty transcends all courtesy and free will, and the reader gets the impression that Shakespeare will go to great lengths to ensure the youth’s legacy.

Time appears to be the greatest impediment to the poet’s enjoyment of his beloved’s beauty. Seasons and years are common motifs as Shakespeare seeks to convey the imperminance of life and good looks. Just as trees bloom and then become barren, so too do humans achieve their greatest beauty, before it inevitably declines. Even the fairest of youths grow old and white; even the fairest of youths is destined to die. And to the poet, such an end is not suitable for his beloved.

So Shakespeare offers his beautiful youth salvation. He claims to possess the power to secure immortality stored within his words. According to Shakespeare, “So long as men can breathe or eyes can see, so long lives this, and this gives life to thee”(Sonnet 18, l.13-4). Once again the poet is seen trying to capture the essence of his beloved by any means necessary. If he cannot force him to copulate and reproduce his beauty through offspring, then Shakespeare will preserve him in writing.

The Wife of Bath is a woman of contradictions, none more so than her tumultuous relationship with the Bible. At times the Good Book is her greatest ally; at others it is her greatest enemy. In the beginning of her prologue, sexuality is the key point of discussion. The Wife first establishes God’s original views on sexuality, namely that he never explicitly demanded that all women be virgins on their wedding nights. She then proceeds to attack St. Paul’s writings: apparently he only supported chastity for all because he himself was unpopular with women. And to further strengthen her position, she then provides her own interpretations of God’s plan for human beings. “Why,” she asks, “ did God give men penises? Certainly it was not only to urinate.” The Wife firmly believes that humans should be allowed to enjoy sexuality as more than a procreational activity.

Other times the Bible is used to slander the Wife’s name. The reader discovers that one of the woman’s five husbands, her last in fact, was a clergyman. Even though she professes that he was the one she married for love, and even asks God to keep his soul from hell, the two of them certainly had difficulties. In fact, it is because of this man of God that she is currently deaf. During his life, the 5^th Husband had a habit of reading from his book of bad wives. Contained with its pages were tales of evil women who ruined the lives of their spouses. Each story was pulled from an ancient story-telling tradition, whether Greek, Roman or Christian. In order to gain total control over her husband, the Wife of Bath destroyed the book. And even though she did achieve her goal, because she meddled with supernatural forces, deafness was her punishment.

     A reader can discern much about Beowulf’s character merely by examining his boasts. Three times Beowulf is confronted with a seemingly insurmountable challenge, and each time he succeeds. But before each bout, the warrior sees fit to proclaim victory over his foe; these boasts reveal much about his personality. Foremost in the mind of the Geat are the rewards to be bestowed upon him, if he completes his task. Several times he mentions the glory to be earned by killing powerful foes, even if it comes at the cost of his own life. Beowulf also never fails to mention the monetary rewards that go hand-in-hand with monster slaying; even before his last fight, when death seems all but certain, the old warrior only says “I shall win the gold by my courage”(87). Later, as his life is ebbing away, Wiglaf is asked to fetch treasures from the hoard, so that the king may die with his sight upon them.

     Beowulf’s boasts also highlight some of his insecurities. During his speech condemning Grendel’s mother, the warrior makes some remarks concerning his death. Recalling Hrothgar’s words, Beowulf asks that he be treated as a son should he not return. In addition, he makes the surprising announcement that Unferth shall be the executor of his possessions. Both remarks seem out of place for one who seems to relish the idea of dying gloriously. And that is when the author says “After these words, the prince of the Weather-Geats was impatient to be away and plunged suddenly”(66). The sadness of his friends is too much for Beowulf to bear, forcing him quickly into the arms of Grendel’s dam. He would rather face death than his own emotions.